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Shire Egyptology: Egyptian Scarabs by Richard H. Wilkinson.

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DESCRIPTION: Paperback. Publisher: Shire (2008). Pages: 64. Dimensions: 8¼ x 6 inches; ½ pound. The scarab is the single most abundant artifact to have survived from ancient Egypt and hundreds of thousands, if not millions, were made throughout the course of Egyptian history. Today, scarabs continue to be found on excavations throughout Egypt and thousands reside in museum collections around the world. This volume examines these ubiquitous and important artifacts by first considering the unique biology and behavior of the scarab beetle and its incorporation into Egyptian symbolism, religion and art. The development of the scarab amulet is then considered, and the many types of scarab produced by the Egyptians are surveyed. Two particularly important classes of scarab - the heart scarab and the commemorative scarab - are examined in detail. Finally, the export of Egyptian scarabs and their imitation by the nations around Egypt is examined as a tangible mark of the extent of Egypt's influence in the ancient world and of the importance of the scarab itself.

CONDITION: NEW. New oversized softcover. Shire (2008) 64 pages. Unblemished, unmarked, pristine in every respect. Pages are pristine; clean, crisp, unmarked, unmutilated, tightly bound, unambiguously unread. Satisfaction unconditionally guaranteed. In stock, ready to ship. No disappointments, no excuses. PROMPT SHIPPING! HEAVILY PADDED, DAMAGE-FREE PACKAGING! Meticulous and accurate descriptions! Selling rare and out-of-print ancient history books on-line since 1997. We accept returns for any reason within 14 days! #7224a.

PLEASE SEE DESCRIPTIONS AND IMAGES BELOW FOR DETAILED REVIEWS AND FOR PAGES OF PICTURES FROM INSIDE OF BOOK.

PLEASE SEE PUBLISHER, PROFESSIONAL, AND READER REVIEWS BELOW.

PUBLISHER REVIEWS:

REVIEW: This volume examines these ubiquitous and important artifacts by first considering the unique biology and behavior of the scarab beetle and its incorporation into Egyptian symbolism, religion and art.

REVIEW: Richard H. Wilkinson is Professor of Egyptian Archaeology at the University of Arizona. He has organized and directed several exhibitions and international conferences on Egyptological topics. Dr. Wilkinson is the author of over a hundred articles and reviews as well as seven previously published books. He also founded and edits the Directory of North American Egyptologists and has served for two terms on the national board of the American Research Center in Egypt, the official Egyptological association of the United States.

PROFESSIONAL REVIEWS:

REVIEW: Considered the premier introductory reference on the subject.

READER REVIEWS:

REVIEW: Wilkinson is the Regents' Professor of Egyptology at the University of Arizona and the Director of the university's Egypt Expedition. He has written numerous books and academic papers and is a well known name in Egyptology.

The contents are as follows:

- A list of illustrations.

- Chronology from the Predynastic to Graeco-Roman periods.

1. The scarab in nature and myth.

2. Scarab development.

3. Types of scarab.

4. Heart scarabs.

5. Commemorative scarabs.

6. Scarabs abroad.

- Further reading.

- Museums.

- Index.

1. The Scarab in Nature and Myth.

Chapter 1 introduces the scarab to the uninitiated. Over a period of 2000 years from the end of the Old Kingdom, scarab representations were made in a variety of fabrics. The member of the Scarabaeidae family upon which the Egyptian scarab representations is based on the form of dung beetle known as the "roller" due to its practice of rolling dung into their burrows for food or for egg-laying. The second half of the chapter looks at the mythology of the scarab beetle in Egypt, which is based apparently on the rolling of the dung ball which as equated to the movement of the solar orb across the sky. The scarab deity Khepri was one of three major forms of solar deity. Wilkinson goes on to explore the nature of Khepri, the deity who was constantly reborn, just as the sun was reborn each day.

2. Scarab Development.

Wilkinson opens with the intriguing observation that the development of the scarab in Egypt "followed a somewhat slow and unlikely path". He goes on to describe how scarab forms evolved. The earliest were amulets. Amulets date to the Predynastic but most early ovoid scarab forms date from the end of the Old Kingdom. They were first used as seals during the First Intermediate period, by the end of which they were more precisely made, showing a more naturalistic form than in the Old Kingdom. Seals, on the base of the amulet beneath the scarab itself, could be maze-like or representational. Wilkinson discusses mass-production in the Middle Kingdom and the expanding range of seal motifs. Stylistic advances were made in the New Kingdom. The chapter concludes with an excellent overview of some of the problems involved with the dating of scarabs.

3. Types of Scarabs.

This chapter looks at different ways of looking at scarabs. Wilkinson discusses them under the following headings:

- Form and function.

- Materials of construction.

- Back designs.

- Base designs and inscriptions.

4. Heart scarabs.

This chapter looks at the role of the scarab, from around the 13th Dynasty, in the process by which the dead makes the transition into the afterlife. The "weighing of the heart" is a judgment presided over by certain deities and described in the Book of the Dead. The heart is weighed on scales against a feather which represents the truth and justice of the goddess Ma'at. Scarab amulets were placed in the mummy to assist the heart during the judgment. The rest of the chapter discusses the design and manufacture of these scarabs. The number of variants is considerable. As time went by scarabs, particularly in royal mummies, were incorporated into often elaborate pectorals jewelry. They fell out of use by the Greco-Roman period.

5. Commemorative Scarabs.

These are scarabs that were commissioned specially to celebrated specific occasions and which date to the New Kingdom, principally during the reign of Amenhotep III. They are an important source of historical information. Wilkinson gives examples of particular scarabs and classes of commemorative scarab. All consist of scarab amulets with hieroglyphic inscriptions on the bases, some texts quite short, others remarkably long. Wilkinson points out some gaps in knowledge. For example, why only some subjects appear to have been commemorated by Amenhotep III, and why commemorative scarabs do not appear to have been produced after the 11th year of Amenhotep's reign but were resumed under the reign of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten). Wilkinson highlights the differences between scarabs of Amenhotep III and IV. None are known after the Amarna period.

6. Scarabs Abroad.

Egyptian scarabs are by no means exclusive to Egypt. They are found throughout the Mediterranean. Egyptian items were highly valued through the Mediterranean areas and were widely traded. Scarabs were perhaps valued as magical amulets. As well as originals from Egypt copies were also produced, some of which were true to the originals and many of which had their own distinctive character. Wilkinson looks at Mediterranean scarabs area by area: the southern Levant, the Aegean, Etruria and "other cultures". All have archaeological value. For example, those from the southern Levant have been research with a view to improving an understanding of how the chronologies of Palestine and Egypt relate to each other.

The above chapters are followed by a useful three-page list of further reading, a list of museums to visit (in the UK, Canada, Egypt, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Switzerland and the US). Finally there is an index.

This is an excellent book. The subject matter is ideal for a publication of this size (64 pages) and leaves the reader with the feeling that a great deal of information has been imparted without the sense that there are any huge gaps. Not that scarabs are a simple topic - they are the subject of important research projects using increasingly complex techniques and they are key to understanding both Egyptian concerns and the way in which Egypt was perceived by and was connected with other cultures. Wilkinson touches on those important issues without become side-tracked by them. His writing is clear and articulate and a pleasure to read.

The text is complemented by illustrations, diagrams and photographs in both black and white and color, all of which illustrate the points made throughout the book. The book is well made and printed on glossy paper which highlights the colored photographs particularly well.

REVIEW: All of the Shire books I have seen have been quite educational and nicely done. This book is in that category although it is for a beginner in collecting or studying scarabs. Very informative.

ADDITIONAL BACKGROUND:

Ancient Egyptian Amulets: One of the greatest civilizations of recorded history was ancient Egypt. Ancient Egyptian artifacts (amulets, beads, and other forms of jewelry) are amongst the most sought after and highly collectible artifacts from ancient Egypt. Religion was very important to the ancient Egyptians, and they worshipped many gods. These gods and goddesses often represented the natural world, such as the sky, earth, sun, or wind. The gods took the form of animals or animal/human figures. The ancient Egyptians wore amulets, small representations of these gods, as magical charms to ward off danger. They believed that these amulets, or talismans, would not only protect them in life, but in death as well, and would endow the individual wearing them with magical powers and capabilities.

While religious beliefs in ancient Egypt played a very important role in life, they played an even larger role in death. The ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead prescribed 104 different types of amulets be buried with the mummy in order to protect the deceased on his or her journey into the afterlife. Typically pinned to or wrapped within their burial shroud, it was not uncommon to find even thousands of amulets in the possession of the mummified remains of more prominent members of that ancient civilization. Typically when mummifying the deceased, there could be as many as 80 layers of linen, and it was not unusual to place at least one amulet representation of each of the more significant deities within each layer. As with the entire process of mummification and burial, the manufacture of amulets and the application of the magic spells for the benefit of the deceased, were almost always overseen by Egyptian priests.

Amulets from ancient Egypt were buried typically for between 2,500 and 3,000 years before being unearthed inside of tombs within the last century or two. Amulets typically are between one-half and two inches in size. Amulets were oftentimes worn about the neck by the ancient Egyptians, typically on a beaded necklace. The beads were most often faience beads, in colors ranging from tan to pale jade green to cobalt blue. Though the material used to string the necklaces disappeared in the eons passed while buried within the tombs of Egypt, the beads themselves survived. [AncientGifts]

Ancient Egyptian Amulets and Scarabs:Religion in ancient Egypt was fully integrated into the people's daily lives. The gods were present at one's birth, throughout one's life, in the transition from earthly life to the eternal, and continued their care for the soul in the afterlife of the Field of Reeds. The spiritual world was ever present in the physical world. This understanding was symbolized through images in art, architecture, in amulets, statuary, and the objects used by nobility and clergy in the performance of their duties.

Some of the most important symbols were:

the Ankh,

Djed,

Was Scepter,

Numbers,

Scarab,

Tjet,

Crook & Flail,

Shen,

Udjat Eye,

Sesen,

and Ben-Ben.

Symbols in a largely illiterate society serve the vital purpose of relaying the most important values of the culture to the people generation after generation. So it was in ancient Egypt. The peasant farmer would not have been able to read the literature, poetry, or hymns which told the stories of his gods, kings, and history. However even the completely illiterate but could look at an obelisk or a relief on a temple wall and comprehend their meaning through the symbols used.

The Scarab:

The scarab is the famous beetle image seen in Egyptian art and iconography. The depiction represented the Scarabaeus sacer, a species of the dung beetle. The dung beetle was associated with the gods because it rolled dung into a ball in which it laid its eggs. The dung served as food for the young when they hatched. In this way, life came from death.

Dung Beetles were also closely identified with the god Khepri. Khepri was imagined to roll the ball of the sun across the sky. After sunset Khepri keep the sun safe as it traveled through the underworld. Finally Khepri pushed the sun up into the dawn the next day. When Ra became the pre-eminent sun god, Khepri continued in this role as an assistant. Scarabs became popular amulets during the First Intermediate Period of 2181-2040 BC. Scarabs remained popular throughout the duration of Egypt's history until the rise of Christianity.

The Ankh, Djed and Was Scepter.

The three most important symbols were the “ankh”, the “djed”, and the “was scepter”. These symbols frequently appeared in all manner of Egyptian artwork, from amulets to architecture. They were frequently combined in inscriptions and often appear on sarcophagi together in a group or separately. In the case of each of these, the form represents the eternal value of the concept. The ankh represented life; the djed stability; the was scepter represented power. Scholar Richard H. Wilkinson, noting the importance of form-as-function, related the following:

“A little known but fascinating inscription made at the command of the pharaoh Thutmose IV records the discovery by the king of a stone. The significance of this celebrated stone lay not in its being of rare material or appearance. Rather the inscription tells us it's significance was due to the fact that 'his majesty found this stone in the shape of a divine hawk'. That an Egyptian king should place so much importance on a mere rock simply because of its shape is instructive. This illustrates how alert the ancient Egyptian was to the shapes of objects and to the symbolic importance which the dimension of form could hold”.

The Ankh:

The ankh is in the shape of a cross with a looped top. The ankh was a conceptual representation of life. It also symbolized eternal life, the morning sun, the male and female principles, as well as the heavens and the earth. Its form embodied these concepts in its key-like shape. In carrying or wearing the ankh, one was holding the key to the secrets of existence. The union of opposites (male and female, earth and heaven) and the extension of earthly life to eternal, time to eternity, were all represented in the form of the looped cross. The symbol dated from the Early Dynastic Period in Egypt (circa 3150-2613 BC). The ankh symbol was so potent and so long-lived in Egyptian culture that it is no surprise it was appropriated by the Christian faith in the 4th century AD as a symbol for their god.

Chain of Ankhs: The origin of the ankh symbol is unknown. However the famous Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge suggests that it likely developed from the “tjet”. The “tjet” is also known as the “Knot of Isis”. This is symbol of similar appearance with the arms at its sides, and is associated with the goddess “Isis”. Female deities were widely popular, and seem to be considered more powerful in the early history of Egypt. One example might be found in the goddess Neith.

However the ankh was closely associated with the cult of Isis. As her popularity grew so grew that of the symbol. Many different gods are depicted holding the ankh. Along with the djed symbol the ankh appears in virtually every kind of Egyptian artwork from sarcophagi to tomb paintings, palace adornments, statuary, and inscriptions. As an amulet, the ankh was almost as popular as the scarab and the djed.

БгЮЕру ВоувБ.гЮЖБЗЮThe djed is a column with a broad base narrowing as it rises to a capital and crossed by four parallel lines. It bears a vague resemblance to a “rook” chess piece, or a castle turret. It first appears in the Predynastic Period in Egypt, which encompassed from about 6000-3150 BC. It remained a staple of Egyptian iconography through the Ptolemaic Period of 323-30 BC. The Ptolemies were the last dynasty to rule Egypt before the coming of Rome.

Although understood as representing stability, the djed symbol served to remind one of the close presence of the gods as it also referenced the god Osiris. The djed was thus linked to resurrection and eternal life. The djed was thought to represent the god's backbone or spine. The symbol frequently appears on the bottom of sarcophagi in order to help the newly arrived soul stand up and walk into the afterlife.

The symbol has also been interpreted as four columns rising behind each other. Four is the number most frequently appearing in Egyptian iconography. The number symbolized completeness and is seen in art, architecture, and funerary goods such as the Four Sons of Horus of the canopic jars, the four sides of a pyramid, etc. It is also believed that the djed represented the tamarisk tree. In his most popular myth Osiris is enclosed in a tamarisk tree, the symbol associated with the Osiris-Isis myth.

The djed as the tamarisk tree speaks of rebirth and resurrection as, in the myth, the tree holds Osiris until he is freed and brought back to life by Isis. The tamarisk tree was also raised during festivals as a fertility pole. The fertility pole is also associated with Osiris who caused the waters of the Nile River to rise, fertilize the land, and flow again to its natural course.

But in every interpretation the message of the djed goes back to the stability in life and hope in the afterlife, both of which were provided by the gods. Whatever symbolism the djed is believed to represent, it was always a very powerful symbol which was often coupled with another: the “was scepter”.

The Was Scepter:

The “was scepter” is a staff topped with the head of a canine, possibly representing the god Anubis. It became prevalent by the time of the New Kingdom of 1570-1069 BC. However the “was scepter” evolved from an earlier version which was a totemic animal such as a fox or dog. The was scepter evolved from the earliest scepters, symbols of royal power, known as the “hekat”. The “hekat scepter” is depicted in representations of the first king, of the Early Dynastic Period, Narmer. These depictions date to about 3150 BC. By the time of the king Djet of the First Dynasty, about 3000 BC, the “was scepter” was fully developed and symbolized one's dominion and power.

The scepter was usually forked at the bottom. However this changed according to which god or mortal was holding it, as did the color of the staff. The Goddess Hathor who was associated with the cow is most frequently depicted holding a scepter forked at the bottom in the shape of cow horns. Isis holds a similar object but with the traditional fork representing duality. The was-scepter of “Ra-Horakhty” ('Horus in the Horizon'), god of the rising and setting sun, was blue to symbolize the sky. The was-scepter of the sun god Ra was represented with a snake attached. This symbolized rebirth, reflecting the fact that though it disappeared each night, the sun rose again each morning.

Each god's was scepter denoted their particular dominion in one way or another. Dating from the Early Dynastic Period the god Ptah holds a was-scepter which combines all three symbols, the ankh, djed, and was, with a circle at the bottom symbolizing unity. The combination of the symbols, naturally, combined their power. This was of course only fitting for this god who was associated with creation and known as the “sculptor of the earth”. The three symbols at the top of Ptah's staff, along with the circle at the bottom, represented the overall meaning of completeness or totality, in the number four.

A combination of the symbols always had a specific meaning. The Egyptological Scholar Wilkinson wrotes, "one of the most important principles for understanding the numerical symbolism of Egyptian representational works is that of the extension of numbers." A two-dimensional work of art, such as an image of a god or goddess, is often depicted in such a way that the number four is implied. This practice applied to many numbers. As Wilkinson noted, "the number actually depicted must be mentally 'extended' in order to properly understand its significance in the composition."

Examples of this include representations of the djed as four columns each rising behind the other. Although the number four represents completeness, the multiplication of four extending toward the horizon would add the equally important concept of eternity. The djed symbol used throughout the pyramid complex of Djoser at Saqqara is a prime example of this. At Djoser's complex, the djed appears on temple lintels appearing to hold up the sky. If the djed is interpreted as four columns multiplied infinitely then the concept of eternity is emphasized through the architecture. The ankh, djed, and was in architecture are frequently employed in such a way as to double, triple, or quadruple their number for just this kind of emphasis.

Wilkinson provided written elaboration, “a common example of the principle where two represents four is found in the pair of was-scepters which were used to depict the pillars of the sky. They were depicted standing on the 'ta' or earth hieroglyph, and supporting the 'pet' or sky hieroglyph. This symbolic grouping was frequently used as a framing device around the sides of temple reliefs. The synergetic symbolism placed the composition in a cosmic setting.”

Singly or together these symbols adorned the items the Egyptians used regularly in their daily lives. Amulets were worn by every class of Egyptian society with the djed. Among the most popular followed by the scarab were the ankh, the tjet, the shen, the was, as well as others. These other potent symbols were frequently paired, or associated, with the three most often used.

The Tjet:

The tjet is also known as 'the Knot of Isis' and 'the Blood of Isis'. The symbol resembles an ankh with the arms at its side. The symbol dates to the Old Kingdom of Egypt (about 2613 through 2181 BC), but its origins are probably earlier. The tjet has been interpreted as female genitalia, the folds of a woman's dress, and the knot of a girdle. Regardless however is is in every case, is associated with the goddess Isis.

The Tjet represented protection and security and was often paired with the ankh. The pairing thus offered the dual security of both Isis and Osiris. The tjet was frequently carved on bed posts and the walls of temples. It was most popular during the time of the New Kingdom of Egypt when the cult of Isis was at its peak.

The Crook and Flail:

The crook and flail are among the most famous symbols from ancient Egypt symbolizing the power and majesty of the king. Both these items were associated with Osiris and symbolized his early rule of the land. The symbols appear in the Early Dynastic Period during the reign of the first king, Narmer (about 3150 BC). The symbols linked the king with the mythical first king of Egypt, Osiris.

According to the myth, Osiris' kingdom was usurped by Set. Set murdered Osiris, but Osiris was resurrected by his sister-wife Isis. She bore Osiris a son, Horus. Horus went on to defeat Set and restored order to the land. Once Horus had avenged his father and defeated Set, he took the crook and flail of his father to represent the legitimacy of his reign. So it was for the kings of Egypt who identified with these gods. Egypt's kings were generally associated with Horus during life and with Osiris in death.

The crook was an early tool used by shepherds. The flail was a means of herding goats and also harvesting an aromatic shrub known as the labdanum. Since Osiris was originally an agricultural/fertility deity, he was associated with both implements from the Predynastic Period. The symbols thus served as reminders of the past and the importance of tradition. And of course as well they obviously served as symbols of the legitimacy and power of the king.

The Shen:

The shen is a knotted circle of rope forming an unbroken circle. This symbolized completeness, infinity, and served as protection. The name comes from the Egyptian word for 'encircle.' Shen amulets were frequently worn for protection. Shen images are often depicted on a kind of stand, the whole resembling the Greek omega, though this 'stand' should be understood as the knotted rope completing the circle.

The shen probably developed during the Old Kingdom or First Intermediate Period of Egypt. However it proliferated during the Middle Kingdom (2040-1782 BC), and remained very popular throughout the dynastic history of Ancient Egypt. The god Horus and the goddesses Nekhbet and Isis are frequently seen holding the shen. However other gods were also associated with the symbol.

The shen appears on sarcophagi and in temples and tombs as well as personal inscriptions. The Egyptians greatly valued symmetry and completeness, and so the shen was quite popular and often represented.

The Udjat Eye:

The udjat is another well-known symbol from Egypt: the Eye of Ra. The symbol of the eye is associated with the protective goddess Wadjet during the Predynastic Period. The association continued throughout dynastic Egypt even though the symbol was later more regularly linked to Horus, Ra, and others through the motif of the Distant Goddess.

The distant goddess story has many forms in Egyptian mythology. However they all share one consistent plot. A goddess in some way rebels against the king of the gods. The goddess leaves her home and responsibilities behind to journey to a far-off land. She must be brought back, or tricked into returning, that event then initiating some kind of transformation.

The udjat either represented the goddess or was sent to retrieve her and could take many forms. As the Eye of Ra it was understood to symbolize his watchful presence over creation and is frequently depicted in myths. These depictions included of course that in the myth of the distant goddess. In these various myths the eye was sent forth to gather information for Ra. The udjat remained a consistently potent symbol throughout Egypt's history.

The Sesen:

The sesen is the lotus flower which appears so often in Egyptian art and symbolizes life, creation, rebirth and particularly the sun. The symbol dates to the Early Dynastic Period. However it gained its greatest popularity from the Old Kingdom onwards. The lotus flower closes at evening and sinks down beneath the water. Then at daybreak, it emerges to open again. This pattern caused it to be identified with the sun and, therefore, with life.

The lotus flower also represented rebirth for the same reason and was associated with the god Osiris. The Four Sons of Horus are regularly represented on canopic jars. They are often depicted standing together on a lotus in the presence of Osiris. The lotus flower appears in many different types of Egyptian art from faience statuary to sarcophagi, temples, shrines, and on amulets. It was the symbol of Upper Egypt as the papyrus plant symbolized Lower Egypt. Accordingly the lotus flower was sometimes depicted with its stem entwined with that of the papyrus plant.

The Ben-Ben:

The ben-ben was the primordial mound upon which the god Atum stood at the beginning of creation. It is easily the best-known symbol from ancient Egypt, after the ankh, even if one does not recognize the name. The pyramids of Egypt, wherever one finds them and from any age, represent the ben-ben as they rise from the earth toward the heavens. According to one version of the Egyptian creation myth, in the beginning of time, there were only the dark waters of chaos in constant motion until the ben-ben rose as the first dry land.

Atum (or in some variations of the myth Ptah or Ra) stood on the ben-ben to begin the work of creation. The pyramids and other similar structures symbolized both creation and eternity by invoking the imagery of this myth. The ben-ben as a symbol dates from the Early Dynastic Period. However the symbol became more widespread during the Old Kingdom. This was at the time when the great pyramid builders constructed the monuments of Giza.

The ben-ben may also have been worn as an amulet. However it is more likely that the ben-ben was among the works of art mass produced during the First Intermediate Period as a statuette. The ben-ben appears in many inscriptions from the Old Kingdom through the Late Period of 525-323 BCE. However the ben-ben was also engraved on temple walls, tombs, and sarcophagi.

Other Symbols:

There were many other important symbols throughout Egypt's history. For example the Bennu Bird was the model for the Greek phoenix, and symbolized resurrection. The white ostrich feather symbolized the goddess Ma'at, but also the concept of balance and truth she stood for. The Tree of Life stood for knowledge, purpose, and destiny. Snakes and serpents represented transformation and change. The cobra was a protective image, associated early with the goddess Wadjet. Wadjet drove off the enemies of Ra, hood extended and rearing to strike. The cobra also became the insignia of kings and was worn on the uraeus, the royal headdress.

One of the most important and ubiquitous symbol associated with the monarch was the winged solar disk known as the Horus Behdety or Horus of Behdet. This symbolized kingship, power, the flight of the soul, and divinity. The symbol is among the oldest in the world and variations of it are seen in many different cultures. In Egypt it seems to have at first represented the syncretization of the god of the midday sun, Behdety, and the sky god Horus. In time it came to be associated with the supreme power of Horus and his representative on earth, the pharaoh.

The crowns of Egypt in art also have distinct meaning and symbolism. The Red Crown (Deshret) symbolized Lower Egypt. The White Crown (Hedjet) symbolized Upper Egypt. The Red and Qhite Double Crown (Pshent) symbolized a unified Egypt. Images of the king in battle show him in a blue crown (a Khepresh) invoking through its color both the power of the Nile River and the heavens. The god Osiris had his own crown, the Atef. This was a tall hedjet crown adorned on each side with ostrich feathers and topped by a gold sun disc.

All of these symbols contributed to the rich culture of ancient Egypt. Although they were religious in nature, were never considered “religious symbols” as a modern mind would interpret the term. In the present day religion is considered a separate sphere, distinct from one's role in secular society. This is especially true in western countries. However but in ancient Egypt there was no such separation between one's role in the secular versus religious society. Of course the priests and priestesses of the Egyptian deities, the kings, scribes, and nobility made use of these symbols regularly in connection with their religious roles. Bot the same symbols also appear as amulets, inscriptions, and on statuary of every class of Egyptian society from the greatest king to the most modest member of a community [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

Ancient Egyptian Faience Jewelry: Faience is a glassy mineral substance manufactured expertly by the ancient Egyptians. The process was first developed in Mesopotamia, first at Ur and later at Babylon, with significant results but faience production reached its height of quality and quantity in Egypt. Some of the greatest faience-makers of antiquity were the Phoenicians of cities such as Tyre and Sidon who were so expert in making glass that it is thought they invented the process. The Egyptians took the Phoenician technique and improved upon it, creating works of art which still intrigue and fascinate people in the present day.

Faience was made by grinding quartz or sand crystals together with various amounts of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and copper oxide. The resulting substance was formed into whatever shape was desired, whether an amulet, beads, a broach or a figurine and then said pieces were heated. During heating, the pieces would harden and develop a bright color which was then finely glazed. It is thought that the Egyptian artisans perfected faience in an attempt to imitate turquoise and other hard to find gem stones. The calcium silicates in the mixture were responsible for the bright colors and the glassy finish.

Among the most famous of faience statuary is the blue hippopotamus popularly known as "William", currently on exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in Manhattan, NY, USA. This piece was one of a pair found in the shaft of the tomb of the steward Senbi II who served under either Senusret I (circa 1971-1926 B.C.) or Senusret II (circa 1897-1878 B.C.), both of the 12th Dynasty of the Middle Kingdom.

The figure was molded of faience and painted with river and marsh plants, representing the natural habitat of the hippo. A pasted of copper, limestone, and quartz oxide was then applied all over the figure which, when heated, turned it a bright blue. The hippo was considered an extremely dangerous animal by the ancient Egyptians and were sometimes included with grave goods (whether as statuary, amulet, or as an inscription) for protection of the deceased in the afterlife. The soul of the dead person, however, also required protection from its protecting hippo and some provision had to be made for this. In the case of "William" the Hippo, three of its legs were purposefully broken after the statue was completed so it would not be able to run after Senbi II in the afterlife and harm him.

Besides statuary, the Egyptians used faience for the manufacture of jewelry (rings, amulets, necklaces) but also for scarabs, to create the board and pieces for the game of Sennet, for furniture and even for bowls and cups. Among the most popular objects made from faience, however, were the Shabti dolls which were placed in the tombs of the dead. The Shabti was a figure, sometimes fashioned in the likeness of the deceased, who would take the dead person’s place at communal work projects, ordained by the god Osiris, in the after-life of the Field of Reeds. The Egyptian word for faience was tjehenet which means 'gleaming’ or 'shining’ and the faience was thought to reflect the light of immortality.

The poor of Egypt, if they could even afford a Shabti doll, would have one made of wood, while the more wealthy and the nobility commanded Shabti of faience. The colors of the faience (as with color generally) were thought to have special symbolism. Blue represented fertility, life, the Nile river on earth and in the after-life, green symbolized goodness and re-birth in the Field of Reeds, red was used for vitality and energy and also as protection from evil, black represented death and decay but also life and regeneration, and white symbolized purity. The colors one sees on the Shabti dolls, and in other faience, all have very specific meaning and combine to provide a protective energy for the object's owner.

The Egyptian word for faience was tjehenet which means 'gleaming’ or 'shining’ and the faience was thought to reflect the light of immortality. So closely was faience associated with the Egyptian after-life that the tiles for the chamber walls of tombs were made of faience as was seen at King Djoser’s tomb at Saqqara and, most famously, in the tomb of Tutankhamun where over one hundred objects were entirely or partially of faience.

The earliest evidence of a faience workshop has been unearthed at Abydos and dated to 5500 B.C. The workshop consists of a number of circular pits, clearly the remains of kilns, with a lining of brick and all of them fire-marked. Layers of ancient ash in the pits are evidence of continuous use over many years. Small clay balls were also discovered and it is thought that they may have been used as the surface on which faience beads were fired in the kilns. The names of the faience makers are lost to history save for one man, Rekhamun, who was known as “Faience Maker of Amun”, and another known as Debeni, the overseer of faience workers. Of the other craftsmen in faience, and there must have been many, nothing is known. [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

Ancient Egyptian Beads in a Danish Burial: The chemical composition of 23 glass beads unearthed in Denmark was examined with plasma-spectrometry, and compared with the trace elements found in beads from Amarna in Egypt and Nippur in Mesopotamia. One of the beads, made of blue glass, had come from a woman’s Bronze Age burial that was excavated in 1880 at the Ølby site. She had been buried in a hollowed-out oak trunk wearing a belt disc, a string skirt with small bronze tubes, a bracelet made of amber beads, and a single blue glass bead.

Science Nordic reports that the research team, made up of scientists from Moesgaard Museum, the National Museum of Denmark, Aarhus University, and the Institut de Recherche sur les Archéomatériaux in Orléans, France, matched this bead’s chemical signature to beads made 3,400 years ago in an Egyptian workshop. They now think that Egyptian glass beads, perhaps symbolizing the Egyptian sun cult, traveled north from the Mediterranean on the amber route, which carried Nordic amber south. Amber and glass beads have been found together at sites in the Middle East, Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Germany. [Archaeological Institute of America].

Shabti Dolls (Ushabti): The Workforce in the Afterlife. The Egyptians believed the afterlife was a mirror-image of life on earth. When a person died their individual journey did not end but was merely translated from the earthly plane to the eternal. The soul stood in judgement in the Hall of Truth before the great god Osiris and the Forty-Two Judges and, in the weighing of the heart, if one's life on earth was found worthy, that soul passed on to the paradise of the Field of Reeds.

The soul was rowed with others who had also been justified across Lily Lake (also known as The Lake of Flowers) to a land where one regained all which had been thought lost. There one would find one's home, just as one had left it, and any loved ones who had passed on earlier. Every detail one enjoyed during one's earthly travel, right down to one's favorite tree or most loved pet, would greet the soul upon arrival. There was food and beer, gatherings with friends and family, and one could pursue whatever hobbies one had enjoyed in life.

In keeping with this concept of the mirror-image, there was also work in the afterlife. The ancient Egyptians were very industrious and one's work was highly valued by the community. People, naturally, held jobs to support themselves and their family but also worked for the community. Community service was compulsory in `giving back' to the society which provided one with everything. The religious and cultural value of ma'at (harmony) dictated that one should think of others as highly as one's self and everyone should contribute to the benefit of the whole.

The great building projects of the kings, such as the pyramids, were constructed by skilled craftsmen, not slaves, who were either paid for their skills or volunteered their time for the greater good. If, whether from sickness, personal obligation or simply lack of desire to comply, one could not fulfill this obligation, one could send someone else to work in one’s place - but could only do so once. On earth, one's place was filled by a friend, relative, or a person one paid to take one's place; in the afterlife, however, one's place was taken by a shabti doll.

Shabti dolls (also known as shawbti and ushabti) were funerary figures in ancient Egypt who accompanied the deceased to the after-life. Their name is derived from the Egyptian swb for stick but also corresponds to the word for `answer’ (wsb) and so the shabtis were known as `The Answerers’. The figures, shaped as adult male or female mummies, appear in tombs where they represented the deceased and were made of stone, wood or faience. The figures, shaped as adult male or female mummies, appear in tombs early on (when they represented the deceased) and, by the time of the New Kingdom (1570-1069 B.C.) were made of stone or wood (in the Late Period they were composed of faience) and represented an anonymous `worker’.

Each doll was inscribed with a `spell’ (known as the shabti formula) which specified the function of that particular figure. The most famous of these spells is Spell 472 from the Coffin Texts which date from circa 2143-2040 B.C. Citizens were obligated to devote part of their time each year to labor for the state on the many public works projects the pharaoh had decreed according to their particular skill and a shabti would reflect that skill or, if it was a general `worker doll', a skill considered important.

As the Egyptians considered the after-life a continuation of one’s earthly existence (only better in that it included neither sickness nor, of course, death) it was thought that the god of the dead, Osiris, would have his own public works projects underway and the purpose of the shabti, then, was to `answer’ for the deceased when called upon for work. Their function is made clear in the Egyptian Book of the Dead (also known as The Book of Coming Forth By Day) which is a kind of manual (dated to circa 1550-1070 B.C.) for the deceased providing guidance in the unfamiliar realm of the afterlife.

The Book of the Dead contains spells which are to be spoken by the soul at different times and for different purposes in the afterlife. There are spells to invoke protection, to move from one area to another, to justify one's actions in life, and even a spell "for removing foolish speech from the mouth" (Spell 90). Among these verses is Spell Six which is known as "Spell for causing a shabti to do work for a man in the realm of the dead". This spell is a re-worded version of Spell 472 from the Coffin Texts. When the soul was called upon in the afterlife to labor for Osiris, it would recite this spell and the shabti would come to life and perform one's duty as a replacement.

The spell reads: "O shabti, alloted to me, if I be summoned of if I be detailed to do any work which has to be done in the realm of the dead; if indeed obstacles are implnated for you therewith as a man at his duties, you shall detail yourself for me on every occasion of making arable the fields, of flooding the banks or of conveying sand from east to west; `Here am I', you shall say."

The shabti would then be imbued with life and take one's place at the task. Just as on earth, this would enable the soul to go on about its business. If one were out walking one's dog by the river or enjoying one's time under a favorite tree with a good book and some fine bread and beer, one could continue to do so; the shabti would take care of the duties Osiris called on to be performed. Each of these shabtis was created according to a formula so, for example, when the spell above references "making arable the fields" the shabti responsible would be fashioned with a farming implement.

Every shabti doll was hand-carved to express the task the shabti formula described and so there were dolls with baskets in their hands or hoes or mattocks, chisels, depending on what job was to be done. The dolls were purchased from temple workshops and the more shabti dolls one could afford corresponded to one’s personal wealth. In modern times, therefore, the number of dolls found in excavated tombs has helped archaeologists determine the status of the tomb’s owner. The poorest of tombs contain no shabtis but even those of modest size contain one or two and there have been tombs containing a shabti for every day of the year.

In the Third Intermediate Period (circa1069-747 B.C.) there appeared a special shabti with one hand at the side and the other holding a whip; this was the overseer doll. During this period the shabti seem to have been regarded less as replacement workers or servants for the deceased and more as slaves. The overseer was in charge of keeping ten shabtis at work and, in the most elaborate tombs, there were thirty-six overseer figures for the 365 worker dolls. In the Late Period (circa 737-332 B.C.) the shabtis continued to be placed in tombs but the overseer figure no longer appeared. It is not known exactly what shift took place to render the overseer figure obsolete but, whatever it was, shabti dolls regained their former status as workers and continued to be placed in tombs to carry out their owner’s duties in the after-life. These shabtis were fashioned as the earlier ones with specific tools in their hands or at their sides for whatever task they were called upon to perform.

Shabti dolls are the most numerous type of artifact to survive from ancient Egypt (besides scarabs). As noted, they were found in the tombs of people from all classes of society, poorest to most wealthy and commoner to king. The shabti dolls from Tutankamun's tomb were intricately carved and wonderfully ornate while a shabti from the grave of a poor farmer was much simpler. It did not matter whether one had ruled over all of Egypt or tilled a small plot of land, however, as everyone was equal in death; or, almost so. The king and the farmer were both equally answerable to Osiris but the amount of time and effort they were responsible for was dictated by how many shabtis they had been able to afford before their death.

In the same way that the people had served the ruler of Egypt in their lives, the souls were expected to serve Osiris, Lord of the Dead, in the afterlife. This would not necessarily mean that a king would do the work of a mason but royalty was expected to serve in their best capacity just as they had been on earth. The more shabti dolls one had at one's disposal, however, the more leisure time one could expect to enjoy in the Field of Reeds. This meant that, if one had been wealthy enough on earth to afford a small army of shabti dolls, one could look forward to quite a comfortable afterlife; and so one's earthly status was reflected in the eternal order in keeping with the Egyptian concept of the afterlife as a direct reflection of one's time on earth. [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

Grave Goods in Ancient Egypt: The concept of the afterlife changed in different eras of Egypt's very long history, but for the most part, it was imagined as a paradise where one lived eternally. To the Egyptians, their country was the most perfect place which had been created by the gods for human happiness. The afterlife, therefore, was a mirror image of the life one had lived on earth - down to the last detail - with the only difference being an absence of all those aspects of existence one found unpleasant or sorrowful. One inscription about the afterlife talks about the soul being able to eternally walk beside its favorite stream and sit under its favorite sycamore tree, others show husbands and wives meeting again in paradise and doing all the things they did on earth such as plowing the fields, harvesting the grain, eating and drinking.

In order to enjoy this paradise, however, one would need the same items one had during one's life. Tombs and even simple graves included personal belongings as well as food and drink for the soul in the afterlife. These items are known as 'grave goods' and have become an important resource for modern-day archaeologists in identifying the owners of tombs, dating them, and understanding Egyptian history. Although some people object to this practice as 'grave robbing,' the archaeologists who professionally excavate tombs are assuring the deceased of their primary objective: to live forever and have their name remembered eternally. According to the ancient Egyptians' own beliefs, the grave goods placed in the tomb would have performed their function many centuries ago.

Grave goods, in greater or lesser number and varying worth, have been found in almost every Egyptian grave or tomb which was not looted in antiquity. The articles one would find in a wealthy person's tomb would be similar to those considered valuable today: ornately crafted objects of gold and silver, board games of fine wood and precious stone, carefully wrought beds, chests, chairs, statuary, and clothing. The finest example of a pharaoh's tomb, of course, is King Tutankhamun's from the 14th century B.C. discovered by Howard Carter in 1922 A.D., but there have been many tombs excavated throughout ancient Egypt which make clear the social status of the individual buried there. Even those of modest means included some grave goods with the deceased.The primary purpose of grave goods was not so show off the deceased person's status but to provide the dead with what they would need in the afterlife.

The primary purpose of grave goods, though, was not so show off the deceased person's status but to provide the dead with what they would need in the afterlife. A wealthy person's tomb, therefore, would have more grave goods - of whatever that person favored in life - than a poorer person. Favorite foods were left in the tomb such as bread and cake, but food and drink offerings were expected to be made by one's survivors daily. In the tombs of the upper-class nobles and royalty an offerings chapel was included which featured the offerings table. One's family would bring food and drink to the chapel and leave it on the table. The soul of the deceased would supernaturally absorb the nutrients from the offerings and then return to the afterlife. This ensured one's continual remembrance by the living and so one's immortality in the next life.

If a family was too busy to tend to the daily offerings and could afford it, a priest (known as the ka-priest or water-pourer) would be hired to perform the rituals. However the offerings were made, though, they had to be taken care of on a daily basis. The famous story of Khonsemhab and the Ghost (dated to the New Kingdom of Egypt circa 1570-1069 B.C.) deals with this precise situation. In the story, the ghost of Nebusemekh returns to complain to Khonsemhab, high priest of Amun, that his tomb has fallen into disrepair and he has been forgotten so that offerings are no longer brought. Khonsemhab finds and repairs the tomb and also promises that he will make sure offerings are provided from then on. The end of the manuscript is lost, but it is presumed the story ends happily for the ghost of Nebusemekh. If a family should forget their duties to the soul of the deceased, then they, like Khonsemhab, could expect to be haunted until this wrong was righted and regular food and drink offerings reinstated.

Beer was the drink commonly provided with grave goods. In Egypt, beer was the most popular beverage - considered the drink of the gods and one of their greatest gifts - and was a staple of the Egyptian diet. A wealthy person (such as Tutankhamun) was buried with jugs of freshly brewed beer whereas a poorer person would not be able to afford that kind of luxury. People were often paid in beer so to bury a jug of it with a loved one would be comparable to someone today burying their paycheck. Beer was sometimes brewed specifically for a funeral, since it would be ready, from inception to finish, by the time the corpse had gone through the mummification process. After the funeral, once the tomb had been closed, the mourners would have a banquet in honor of the dead person's passing from time to eternity, and the same brew which had been made for the deceased would be enjoyed by the guests; thus providing communion between the living and the dead.

Among the most important grave goods was the shabti doll. Shabti were made of wood, stone, or faience and often were sculpted in the likeness of the deceased. In life, people were often called upon to perform tasks for the king, such as supervising or laboring on great monuments, and could only avoid this duty if they found someone willing to take their place. Even so, one could not expect to shirk one's duties year after year, and so a person would need a good excuse as well as a replacement worker.

Since the afterlife was simply a continuation of the present one, people expected to be called on to do work for Osiris in the afterlife just as they had labored for the king. The shabti doll could be animated, once one had passed into the Field of Reeds, to assume one's responsibilities. The soul of the deceased could continue to enjoy a good book or go fishing while the shabti took care of whatever work needed to be done. Just as one could not avoid one's obligations on earth, though, the shabti could not be used perpetually. A shabti doll was good for only one use per year. People would commission as many shabti as they could afford in order to provide them with more leisure in the afterlife.

Shabti dolls are included in graves throughout the length of Egypt's history. In the First Intermediate Period (2181-2040 BC) they were mass-produced, as many items were, and more are included in tombs and graves of every social class from then on. The poorest people, of course, could not even afford a generic shabti doll, but anyone who could, would pay to have as many as possible. A collection of shabtis, one for each day of the year, would be placed in the tomb in a special shabti box which was usually painted and sometimes ornamented.

Instructions on how one would animate a shabti in the next life, as well as how to navigate the realm which waited after death, was provided through the texts inscribed on tomb walls and, later, written on papyrus scrolls. These are the works known today as the Pyramid Texts (circa 2400-2300 BC), the Coffin Texts (circa 2134-2040 BC), and The Egyptian Book of the Dead (circa 1550-1070 BC). The Pyramid Texts are the oldest religious texts and were written on the walls of the tomb to provide the deceased with assurance and direction.

When a person's body finally failed them, the soul would at first feel trapped and confused. The rituals involved in mummification prepared the soul for the transition from life to death, but the soul could not depart until a proper funeral ceremony was observed. When the soul woke in the tomb and rose from its body, it would have no idea where it was or what had happened. In order to reassure and guide the deceased, the Pyramid Texts and, later, Coffin Texts were inscribed and painted on the inside of tombs so that when the soul awoke in the dead body it would know where it was and where it now had to go.

These texts eventually turned into The Egyptian Book of the Dead (whose actual title is The Book of Coming Forth by Day), which is a series of spells the dead person would need in order to navigate through the afterlife. Spell 6 from the Book of the Dead is a rewording of Spell 472 of the Coffin Texts, instructing the soul in how to animate the shabti. Once the person died and then the soul awoke in the tomb, that soul was led - usually by the god Anubis but sometimes by others - to the Hall of Truth (also known as The Hall of Two Truths) where it was judged by the great god Osiris. The soul would then speak the Negative Confession (a list of 'sins' they could honestly say they had not committed such as 'I have not lied, I have not stolen, I have not purposefully made another cry'), and then the heart of the soul would be weighed on a scale against the white feather of ma'at, the principle of harmony and balance.

If the heart was found to be lighter than the feather, then the soul was considered justified; if the heart was heavier than the feather, it was dropped onto the floor where it was eaten up by the monster Amut, and the soul would then cease to exist. There was no 'hell' for eternal punishment of the soul in ancient Egypt; their greatest fear was non-existence, and that was the fate of someone who had done evil or had purposefully failed to do good.

If the soul was justified by Osiris then it went on its way. In some eras of Egypt, it was believed the soul then encountered various traps and difficulties which they would need the spells from The Book of the Dead to get through. In most eras, though, the soul left the Hall of Truth and traveled to the shores of Lily Lake (also known as The Lake of Flowers) where they would encounter the perpetually unpleasant ferryman known as Hraf-hef ("He Who Looks Behind Himself") who would row the soul across the lake to the paradise of the Field of Reeds. Hraf-hef was the 'final test' because the soul had to find some way to be polite, forgiving, and pleasant to this very unpleasant person in order to cross.

Once across the lake, the soul would find itself in a paradise which was the mirror image of life on earth, except lacking any disappointment, sickness, loss, or - of course - death. In The Field of Reeds the soul would find the spirits of those they had loved and had died before them, their favorite pet, their favorite house, tree, stream they used to walk beside - everything one thought one had lost was returned, and, further, one lived on eternally in the direct presence of the gods.

Reuniting with loved ones and living eternally with the gods was the hope of the afterlife but equally so was being met by one's favorite pets in paradise. Pets were sometimes buried in their own tombs but, usually, with their master or mistress. If one had enough money, one could have one's pet cat, dog, gazelle, bird, fish, or baboon mummified and buried alongside one's corpse. The two best examples of this are High Priestess Maatkare Mutemhat (circa 1077-943 BC) who was buried with her mummified pet monkey and the Queen Isiemkheb (circa 1069-943 BC) who was buried with her pet gazelle.

Mummification was expensive, however, and especially the kind practiced on these two animals. They received top treatment in their mummification and this, of course, represented the wealth of their owners. There were three levels of mummification available: top-of-the-line where one was treated as a king (and received a burial in keeping with the glory of the god Osiris); middle-grade where one was treated well but not that well; and the cheapest where one received minimal service in mummification and burial. Still, everyone - rich or poor - provided their dead with some kind of preparation of the corpse and grave goods for the afterlife.

Pets were treated very well in ancient Egypt and were represented in tomb paintings and grave goods such as dog collars. The tomb of Tutankhamun contained dog collars of gold and paintings of his hunting hounds. Although modern day writers often claim that Tutankhamun's favorite dog was named Abuwtiyuw, who was buried with him, this is not correct. Abuwtiyuw is the name of a dog from the Old Kingdom of Egypt who so pleased the king that he was given private burial and all the rites due a person of noble birth. The identity of the king who loved the dog is unknown, but the dog of king Khufu (2589-2566 BC), Akbaru, was greatly admired by his master and buried with him.

The collars of dogs, which frequently gave their name, often were included as grave goods. The tomb of the noble Maiherpre, a warrior who lived under the reign of Thutmose III (1458-1425 BC) contained two ornamented dog collars of leather. These were dyed pink and decorated with images. One of them has horses and lotus flowers punctuated by brass studs while the other depicts hunting scenes and has the dog's name, Tantanuit, engraved on it. These are two of the best examples of the kind of ornate work which went into dog collars in ancient Egypt. By the time of the New Kingdom, in fact, the dog collar was its own type of artwork and worthy to be worn in the afterlife in the presence of the gods.

During the period of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt (2040-1782 BC) there was a significant philosophical shift where people questioned the reality of this paradise and emphasized making the most of life because nothing existed after death. Some scholars have speculated that this belief came about because of the turmoil of the First Intermediate Period which came before the Middle Kingdom, but there is no convincing evidence of this. Such theories are always based on the claim that the First Intermediate Period of Egypt was a dark time of chaos and confusion which it most certainly was not. The Egyptians always emphasized living life to its fullest - their entire culture is based on gratitude for life, enjoying life, loving every moment of life - so an emphasis on this was nothing new. What makes the Middle Kingdom belief so interesting, however, is its denial of immortality in an effort to make one's present life even more precious.

The literature of the Middle Kingdom expresses a lack of belief in the traditional view of paradise because people in the Middle Kingdom were more 'cosmopolitan' than in earlier times and were most likely attempting to distance themselves from what they saw as 'superstition'. The First Intermediate Period had elevated the different districts of Egypt, made their individual artistic expressions as valuable as the state-mandated art and literature of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, and people felt freer to express their personal opinions rather than just repeat what they had been told. This skepticism disappears during the time of the New Kingdom, and - for the most part - the belief in the paradise of the Field of Reeds was constant throughout Egypt's history. A component of this belief was the importance of grave goods which would serve the deceased in the afterlife just as well as they had on the earthly plane. [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

Ancient Egyptian Religion: Egyptian religion was a combination of beliefs and practices which, in the modern day, would include magic, mythology, science, medicine, psychiatry, spiritualism, herbology, as well as the modern understanding of 'religion' as belief in a higher power and a life after death. Religion played a part in every aspect of the lives of the ancient Egyptians because life on earth was seen as only one part of an eternal journey, and in order to continue that journey after death, one needed to live a life worthy of continuance.

During one's life on earth, one was expected to uphold the principle of ma'at (harmony) with an understanding that one's actions in life affected not only one's self but others' lives as well, and the operation of the universe. People were expected to depend on each other to keep balance as this was the will of the gods to produce the greatest amount of pleasure and happiness for humans through a harmonious existence which also enabled the gods to better perform their tasks.

By honoring the principle of ma'at (personified as a goddess of the same name holding the white feather of truth) and living one's life in accordance with its precepts, one was aligned with the gods and the forces of light against the forces of darkness and chaos, and assured one's self of a welcome reception in the Hall of Truth after death and a gentle judgment by Osiris, the Lord of the Dead.

The underlying principle of Egyptian religion was known as heka (magic) personified in the god Heka. Heka had always existed and was present in the act of creation. He was the god of magic and medicine but was also the power which enabled the gods to perform their functions and allowed human beings to commune with their gods. He was all-pervasive and all-encompassing, imbuing the daily lives of the Egyptians with magic and meaning and sustaining the principle of ma'at upon which life depended.

Possibly the best way to understand Heka is in terms of money. One is able to purchase a particular item with a certain denomination of currency because that item's value is considered the same, or less, than that denomination. The bill in one's hand has an invisible value given it by a standard of worth. Once upon a time in the USA this was the gold standard. Whatever the standard, it promises a merchant it will compensate for what one is buying.

This is exactly the relationship of Heka to the gods and human existence. Heka was the standard, the foundation of power, on which everything else depended. Another god or goddess might be invoked for a specific purpose. They were worshiped for what they had given. However regardless of which deity was involved, it nonetheless was Heka who enabled this relationship between the people and their deities.

The gods of ancient Egypt were seen as the lords of creation and custodians of order. However the gods were also viewed as familiar friends who were interested in helping and guiding the people of the land. The gods had created order out of chaos and given the people the most beautiful land on earth. Egyptians were so deeply attached to their homeland that they shunned prolonged military campaigns beyond their borders. This was due to the fear they would die on foreign soil, and would not be given the proper rites for their continued journey after life.

Egyptian monarchs refused to give their daughters in marriage to foreign rulers for the same reason. The gods of Egypt had blessed the land with their special favor, and the people were expected to honor them as great and kindly benefactors. The people of ancient Egypt believed that “in the beginning” there had been nothing but the dark swirling waters of chaos stretching backward into eternity. Out of this chaos Nu rose out of the waters the primordial hill, known as the Ben-Ben. Upon upon which stood the great god Atum (or “Ptah” according to some versions).

Atum stood in the presence of Heka. Atum looked upon the nothingness and recognized his aloneness. So Atum mated with his own shadow to give birth to two children, “Shu” and “Tefnut”. Shu was the god of air, whom Atum spat out. Tefnut was the goddess of moisture, whom Atum vomited out. Shu gave to the early world the principles of life while Tefnut contributed the principles of order. Leaving their father on the Ben-Ben, they set out to establish the world.

In time Atum became concerned because his children were gone so long. So Atum removed his eye and sent it in search of them. While his eye was gone Atum sat alone on the hill in the midst of chaos and contemplated eternity. Shu and Tefnut returned with the eye of Atum. The eye of Atum was later associated with the Udjat eye, the Eye of Ra, or the All-Seeing Eye. Atum, grateful for the safe return of his children shed tears of joy. Dropping onto the dark, fertile earth of the Ben-Ben, these tears gave birth to men and women.

These humans had nowhere to live however. So Shu and Tefnut mated and gave birth to Geb (the earth) and Nut (the sky). Though brother and sister Geb and Nut fell deeply in love and were inseparable. Atum found their behavior unacceptable and pushed Nut away from Geb, high up into the heavens. The two lovers were forever able to see each other but were no longer able to touch. However Nut had already been impregnated by Geb. Nut eventually gave birth to Osiris, Isis, Set, Nephthys, and Horus. These five Egyptian gods most often recognized as the earliest, although Hathor is now considered by scholars to be older than Isis. These gods then gave birth to all the other gods in one form or another.

The gods each had their own area of specialty. For example Bastet was the goddess of the hearth, home-life, women's health and secrets, and of cats. Hathor was the goddess of kindness and love, associated with gratitude and generosity, motherhood, and compassion. However according to one early story pertaining to Hathor she was originally the goddess Sekhmet. In one legend Sekhmet became drunk on blood and almost destroyed the world.

Sekhmet was eventually pacified and put to sleep by beer which the gods had dyed red to fool her. When she awoke from her sleep, she was transformed into a gentler deity. Although Sekhmet was thus associated with beer, Tenenet was the principle goddess of beer. Tenenet also presided over childbirth. Beer was considered essential for one's health in ancient Egypt and a gift from the gods. There were many deities associated with beer which in legend was said to have been first brewed by Osiris.

Another early myth relates how Osiris was tricked and killed by his brother Set. According to the legend Isis then brought Osiris back to life. However Osiris was incomplete as a fish had eaten a part of him. Osiris consequently could no longer rule harmoniously on earth. So Osiris was made Lord of the Dead in the underworld. His son, Horus the Younger, battled Set for eighty years. Horus the Younger finally defeated Set to restore harmony to the land. Horus and Isis then ruled together. All the other gods then found their rightful places and areas of expertise to help and encourage the people of Egypt.

Among the most important of these gods were the three who made up the Theban Triad; Amun, Mut, and Knons (who also known as Khonsu). Amun was a local fertility god of Thebes until the Theban noble Menuhotep II (2061-2010 BC) defeated his rivals and united Egypt. This elevated Thebes to the position of the capital of ancient Egypt its gods became supreme. Amun, Mut, and Khons of Upper Egypt (where Thebes was located) took on the attributes of Ptah, Sekhment, and Khonsu of Lower Egypt who were much older deities. Amun became the supreme creator god, symbolized by the sun. Mut was his wife, symbolized by the sun's rays and the all-seeing eye. Khons was their son, the god of healing and destroyer of evil spirits.

These three gods were associated with Ogdoad of Hermopolis, a group of eight primordial deities who "embodied the qualities of primeval matter, such as darkness, moistness, and lack of boundaries or visible powers. It usually consisted of four deities doubled to eight by including female counterparts". The Ogdoad represented the state of the cosmos before land rose from the waters of chaos and light broke through the primordial darkness. The Ogdoad were also referred to as the Hehu (`the infinities'). They were Amun and Amaunet, Heh and Hauhet, Kek and Kauket, and Nun and Naunet.

Each pair represented a different aspect of the formless and unknowable time before creation. Hiddenness was represented by Amun and Amaunet. Heh and Hauhet represented infinity. Kek/Kauket represented darkness. Nut/Naunet represented the Abyss. The Ogdoad are the best example of the Egyptian's insistence on symmetry and balance in all things embodied in their male/female aspect. This balance of male/female aspects was thought to have engendered the principle of harmony in the cosmos before the birth of the world.

The Egyptians believed that the earth (specifically Egypt) reflected the cosmos. The stars in the night sky and the constellations they formed were thought to have a direct bearing on one's personality and future fortunes. The gods informed the night sky, even traveled through it. However the gods were not remote, distant deities in the heavens. Rather the ancient Egyptians believed that the gods lived alongside the people of Egypt and interacted with them daily.

Trees were considered the homes of the gods. One of the most popular of the Egyptian deities, Hathor, was sometimes known as "Mistress of the Date Palm" or "The Lady of the Sycamore". It was believed that Hathor favored these particular trees to rest in or beneath. Scholars of Ancient Egypt note that “presumably because of the shade and the fruit provided by them, goddesses associated with protection, mothering, and nurturing were closely associated with. Hathor, Nut, and Isis appear frequently in the religious imagery and literature [in relation to trees]".

Plants and flowers were also associated with the gods. The flowers of the ished tree were known as "flowers of life" for their life-giving properties. Eternity, then, was not an ethereal, nebulous concept of some 'heaven' far from the earth. Rather it was believed that the daily encounter with the gods and goddesses would continue forever, in death as it had in life. However this bliss was conditional. It required that the individual needed to be aware of the importance of harmony in one's life.

Further it required comprehension of how a lack of such harmony affected others as well as one's self. The 'gateway sin' for the ancient Egyptians was ingratitude. This was because it threw one off balance and allowed for every other sin to take root in a person's soul. Once one lost sight of what there was to be grateful for, one's thoughts and energies were drawn toward the forces of darkness and chaos. This belief gave rise to rituals such as “The Five Gifts of Hathor” in which one would consider the fingers of one's hand and name the five things in life one was most grateful for.

Participants in this ritual were encouraged to be specific in this. They were to name anything one held dear. This ,might be a spouse, one's children, one's dog or cat, or the tree by the stream in the yard. As one's hand was readily available at all times, it would serve as a reminder that there were always five things one should be grateful for. It was believed that observance of this ritual would help one to maintain a light heart in keeping with harmonious balance.

This was important throughout one's life and remained equally significant after one's death. In order to progress on toward an eternal life of bliss, one's heart needed to be lighter than a feather when one stood in judgment before Osiris. According to one scholar of Egyptology, "the Egyptians feared eternal darkness and unconsciousness in the afterlife. This was because both conditions belied the orderly transmission of light and movement evident in the universe.”“The Ancient Egyptians understood that death was the gateway to eternity. The Egyptians thus esteemed the act of dying and venerated the structures and the rituals involved in such a human adventure." The structures of the dead can still be seen throughout Egypt in the modern day in the tombs and pyramids which still rise from the landscape. There were structures and rituals after life, however, which were just as important.

The soul was thought to consist of nine separate parts:

the “Khat” was the physical body;

the “Ka” was the individual’s double-form;

the “Ba” was a human-headed bird aspect which could speed between earth and the heavens;

“Shuyet” was the shadow self;

“Akh” was the immortal, transformed self;

“Sahu” and “Sechem” were aspects of the Akh;

“Ab” was the heart, the source of good and evil;

“Ren” was one’s secret name.

All nine of these aspects were part of one's earthly existence. At death, the Akh (with the Sahu and Sechem) appeared before the great god Osiris in the Hall of Truth. Then in the presence of the Forty-Two Judges one's heart (Ab) was weighed in the balance on a golden scale against the white feather of truth. One would then be required to recite the “Negative Confession”. This was a list of those sins one could honestly claim one had not committed in life. One's heart was then placed on the scale.

If one's heart was lighter than the feather, one waited while Osiris conferred with the Forty-Two Judges and the god of wisdom, Thoth. If all agreed that the individual was considered worthy, he or she was allowed to pass on through the hall and continue one's existence in paradise. On the other hand if the individual's heart was heavier than the feather it was thrown to the floor. There it was devoured by the monster “Ammut” (the “gobbler”), and the individual then ceased to exist.

Once through the Hall of Truth, one was then guided to the boat of Hraf-haf ("He Who Looks Behind Him"). Hrah-haf was an unpleasant creature, always cranky and offensive. Nonethess one had to find some way to be kind and courteous to Hraf-haf. By showing kindness to the unkind Hraf-haf, one showed one was worthy to be ferried. The ferry would transport the individual across the waters of Lily Lake, also known as The Lake of Flowers.

Across the lake lay the Field of Reeds. This was a mirror image of one's life on earth. However within the Field of Reeds there was no disease, no disappointment, and no death. One would then continue one's existence just as before. There the individual would await those he or she loved in life to pass over themselves. The individual would also meet those loved ones who had gone on before.

Although the Greek historian Herodotus claims that only men could be priests in ancient Egypt, the Egyptian record argues otherwise. Women could be priests of the cult of their goddess from the Old Kingdom onward. They were accorded the same respect as their male counterparts. Usually a member of the clergy had to be of the same sex as the deity they served. For instance most notably the cult of Hathor was routinely attended to by female clergy.

It should be noted that 'cult' did not have the same meaning in ancient Egypt that it does today. Cults were simply sects of a religion. Priests and Priestesses could marry, have children, and own land and homes. They lived as did anyone else except for certain ritual practices and observances regarding purification before officiating religious ceremonies. Observed one historian, "in most periods, the priests of Egypt were members of a family long connected to a particular cult or temple. Priests recruited new members from among their own clans, generation after generation. This meant that they did not live apart from their own people. They thus maintained an awareness of the state of affairs in their communities."

Priests, like scribes, went through a prolonged training period before beginning service. Once ordained they took care of the temple or temple complex. They performed rituals and observances such as marriages, blessings on a home or project, and funerals. They performed the duties of doctors, healers, astrologers, scientists, and psychologists. They also interpreted dreams. They blessed amulets to ward off demons or increase fertility. They also performed exorcisms and purification rites to rid a home of ghosts.

Their chief duty was to the god they served and the people of the community. An important part of that duty was their care of the temple and the statue of the god within. Priests were also doctors in the service of Heka, no matter what other deity they served directly. An example of this is how all the priests and priestesses of the goddess Serket (Selket) were doctors. However their ability to heal and invoke Serket was enabled through the power of Heka.

The temples of ancient Egypt were thought to be the literal homes of the deities they honored. Every morning the head priest or priestess would be purified by bathing followed by dressing in clean white linen and clean sandals. They would then enter the temple and attend to the statue of the god just as they would attend to a person they were charged to care for. The doors of the sanctuary were opened to let in the morning light. The statue always resided in the innermost sanctuary. It would be cleaned, dressed, and anointed with oil.

After the statue had been attended to, the sanctuary doors were closed and locked. No one but the head priest was allowed such close contact with the god. Those who came to the temple to worship only were allowed in the outer areas. There they would be metby lesser clergy who addressed their needs and accepted their offerings. There were no official `scriptures' used by the clergy. However the concepts conveyed at the temple are thought to have been similar to those found in works such as the Pyramid Texts, the later Coffin Texts, and the spells found in the Egyptian Book of the Dead.

Although the Book of the Dead is often referred to as `The Ancient Egyptian Bible' it was no such thing. The Book of the Dead is a collection of spells for the soul in the afterlife. The Pyramid Texts are the oldest religious texts in ancient Egypt dating from circa 2400-2300 BC. The Coffin Texts were developed later from the Pyramid Texts circa 2134-2040 BC. The Book of the Dead was actually known as the “Book on Coming Forth by Day”. It was composed sometime between 1550 and 1070 BC.

All three of these works deal with how the soul is to navigate the afterlife. Their titles were given by European scholars. However those names to not necessarily well reflect the contents of these works. Taken together with the number of grand tombs and statuary throughout Egypt, as well as the elaborate burial rituals and mummies, can be very misleading. Consequently many had been mislead and have come to the mistaken conclusion that Egypt was a culture obsessed with death.

Actually the Ancient Egyptians were wholly concerned with life. The “Book on Coming Forth by Day” as well as the earlier texts present spiritual truths one would have heard while in life. They remind the soul of how one should now act in the next phase of one's existence without a physical body or a material world. The soul of any Egyptian was expected to recall these truths from life, even if they never set foot inside a temple compound. This was due to the indoctrination provided by the many religious festivals the Egyptians enjoyed throughout the year.

Religious festivals in Egypt integrated the sacred aspect of the gods seamlessly with the daily lives of the people. Noted one Egyptian scholar, "religious festivals actualized belief; they were not simply social celebrations. They acted in a multiplicity of related spheres". There were grand festivals such as “The Beautiful Festival of the Wadi” in honor of the god Amun. These were accompanied by lesser festivals for other gods or to celebrate events in the life of the community.

The same scholar related that, "on certain days and in some eras several times a month, the god was carried on arks or ships into the streets or set sail on the Nile. There the oracles took place and the priests answered petitions". The statue of the god would be removed from the inner sanctuary to visit the members of the community and take part in the celebration. This was a custom which may have developed independently in Egypt or come from Mesopotamia. In ancient Mesopotamia such practices had a long history.

The “Beautiful Festival of the Wadi” was a celebration of life, wholeness, and community. Another Egyptian Scholar noted that ;people attended this festival and visited the shrine to "pray for bodily integrity and physical vitality". They left offerings to the god or goddess as a sign of gratitude for their lives and health. The scholar went on to relate, “one may envisage a priest or priestess coming and collecting the offerings and then replacing the baskets. Some of these have been unearthed as archaeological artifacts.”“That the offerings were oftentimes items of personal jewelry and other personal objects suggests a powerful and intimate link with the goddess. Moreover, at the shrine site of “Timna in the Sinai”, votives were ritually smashed to signify the handing over from human to deity. This practice attests to the range of ritual practices occurring at the time. There was a high proportion of female donors in the New Kingdom. However generally tomb paintings tend not to show the religious practices of women. The tomb paintings rather focus on male activities".

The smashing of the votives signified one's surrender to the benevolent will of the gods. A votive was anything offered in fulfillment of a vow or in the hopes of attaining some wish. While votives were often left intact, they were sometimes ritually destroyed to signify the devotion one had to the gods. In essence the individual was surrendering to the deity something precious. The fact that the votive was ritually destroyed imbued permanence to the offering. The individual was then unable to take the offering back.

There was no distinction at these festivals between those acts considered 'holy' and those which a modern sensibility would label 'profane'. The whole of one's life was open for exploration during a festival. This included sexual activity, drunkenness, prayer, blessings for one's sex life, for one's family, and for one's health. It included offerings made both in gratitude and thanksgiving and in supplication.

Families attended the festivals together as did teenagers and young couples and those hoping to find a mate. Elder members of the community, the wealthy, the poor, the ruling class, and the slaves were all a part of the religious life of the community. This was due to the fact that their religion and their daily lives were completely intertwined. Through their faith they recognized their individual lives were all an interwoven tapestry with every other. [Ancient History Encyclopedia].

SHIPPING & RETURNS/REFUNDS: We always ship books domestically (within the USA) via USPS INSURED media mail (“book rate”). Most international orders cost an additional $17.99 to $48.99 for an insured shipment in a heavily padded mailer. There is also a discount program which can cut postage costs by 50% to 75% if you’re buying about half-a-dozen books or more (5 kilos+). Our postage charges are as reasonable as USPS rates allow. ADDITIONAL PURCHASES do receive a VERY LARGE discount, typically about $5 per book (for each additional book after the first) so as to reward you for the economies of combined shipping/insurance costs.

Your purchase will ordinarily be shipped within 48 hours of payment. We package as well as anyone in the business, with lots of protective padding and containers. All of our shipments are fully insured against loss, and our shipping rates include the cost of this coverage (through stamps.com, Shipsaver.com, the USPS, UPS, or Fed-Ex). International tracking is provided free by the USPS for certain countries, other countries are at additional cost.

We do offer U.S. Postal Service Priority Mail, Registered Mail, and Express Mail for both international and domestic shipments, as well United Parcel Service (UPS) and Federal Express (Fed-Ex). Please ask for a rate quotation. Please note for international purchasers we will do everything we can to minimize your liability for VAT and/or duties. But we cannot assume any responsibility or liability for whatever taxes or duties may be levied on your purchase by the country of your residence. If you don’t like the tax and duty schemes your government imposes, please complain to them. We have no ability to influence or moderate your country’s tax/duty schemes.

If upon receipt of the item you are disappointed for any reason whatever, I offer a no questions asked 30-day return policy. Send it back, I will give you a complete refund of the purchase price; 1) less our original shipping/insurance costs, 2) less any non-refundable fees imposed by . Please note that may not refund payment processing fees on returns beyond a 30-day purchase window. So except for shipping costs, we will refund all proceeds from the sale of a return item. Though they generally do, may not always follow suit. Obviously we have no ability to influence, modify or waive policies.

ABOUT US: Prior to our retirement we used to travel to Eastern Europe and Central Asia several times a year seeking antique gemstones and jewelry from the globe’s most prolific gemstone producing and cutting centers. Most of the items we offer came from acquisitions we made in Eastern Europe, India, and from the Levant (Eastern Mediterranean/Near East) during these years from various institutions and dealers. Much of what we generate on Etsy, Amazon and goes to support worthy institutions in Europe and Asia connected with Anthropology and Archaeology. Though we have a collection of ancient coins numbering in the tens of thousands, our primary interests are ancient/antique jewelry and gemstones, a reflection of our academic backgrounds.

Though perhaps difficult to find in the USA, in Eastern Europe and Central Asia antique gemstones are commonly dismounted from old, broken settings – the gold reused – the gemstones recut and reset. Before these gorgeous antique gemstones are recut, we try to acquire the best of them in their original, antique, hand-finished state – most of them originally crafted a century or more ago. We believe that the work created by these long-gone master artisans is worth protecting and preserving rather than destroying this heritage of antique gemstones by recutting the original work out of existence. That by preserving their work, in a sense, we are preserving their lives and the legacy they left for modern times. Far better to appreciate their craft than to destroy it with modern cutting.

Not everyone agrees – fully 95% or more of the antique gemstones which come into these marketplaces are recut, and the heritage of the past lost. But if you agree with us that the past is worth protecting, and that past lives and the produce of those lives still matters today, consider buying an antique, hand cut, natural gemstone rather than one of the mass-produced machine cut (often synthetic or “lab produced”) gemstones which dominate the market today. We can set most any antique gemstone you purchase from us in your choice of styles and metals ranging from rings to pendants to earrings and bracelets; in sterling silver, 14kt solid gold, and 14kt gold fill. When you purchase from us, you can count on quick shipping and careful, secure packaging. We would be happy to provide you with a certificate/guarantee of authenticity for any item you purchase from us. There is a $3 fee for mailing under separate cover. I will always respond to every inquiry whether via email or message, so please feel free to write.



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